Mudumalai National Park is located in the Nilgiri Mountains in Tamil Nadu, southern India. The park covers an area of 321 square kilometers (124 square miles) and is found at elevations between 850 and 1,250 meters (2,790 and 4,100 feet) in the Nilgiri District. It shares borders with the states of Karnataka and Kerala. Part of the park has been protected since 1940. Since 1986, the park has been part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. In 2007, it was officially declared a tiger reserve along with a buffer zone of 367.59 square kilometers (141.93 square miles). The park receives about 1,420 millimeters (56 inches) of rain each year. It is home to tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, which include 498 plant species, at least 266 bird species, 18 carnivore species, and 10 herbivore species. The Moyar River and its tributaries flow through the park and support 38 fish species.

Three public roads that pass through the park have led to many animal deaths, including mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Since 1999, several wildfires have damaged the northern part of the park.

History

The name "Mudumalai" comes from a Tamil language. The word "mutu" means old or ancient, and "mudhukadu" means ancient forest. The word "malai" means hill or mountain. The name "Mudumalai forest" was already used when the British government rented the forest in 1857 for logging from the Raja of Neelambur. In 1914, large areas of the Sigur Plateau were declared as reserve forest for organized logging. In 1940, an area of about 60 kilometers (23 square miles) was created as Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary. The sanctuary was expanded in 1977 and added to the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in 1986. In April 2007, it became a Tiger Reserve under Project Tiger and was labeled "Critical Tiger Habitat" in December 2007. At that time, 1,947 people lived in 28 small villages inside the reserve, and they had about 1,060 cattle. In 2010, it was suggested that these people be moved to new homes. This plan was criticized by activists and conservationists for being unclear and unfair.

In 2010, the National Tiger Conservation Authority approved money for Mudumalai Tiger Reserve as part of Project Tiger. In 2020, Project Tiger was extended until 2021 with funding of 114.1 million rupees from the Government of India and the Government of Tamil Nadu.

Geography

Mudumalai National Park spans 321 km (124 sq mi) in the eastern hills of the Western Ghats, located at elevations between 850–1,250 m (2,790–4,100 ft). It is bordered by the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary to the west, Bandipur National Park to the north, Sigur Reserve Forest to the east, and Singara Reserve Forest to the south. The Moyar River flows into the park from the south and is joined by five tributaries. These rivers drain the area, and artificial waterholes supply drinking water for wildlife during dry seasons. The original park area, along with a surrounding buffer zone of 367.59 km (141.93 sq mi), was designated as Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.

The elevation range of 250–1,200 m (820–3,940 ft) in the Western Ghats is marked by evergreen forests where dipterocarp trees are common. The rolling hills are mostly made of hornblendite and biotite gneiss with black sandy loam soil, while red heavy loam soil is found in the southern part. This area is part of the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion. Mudumalai National Park and the nearby Sigur Reserve Forest form a key wildlife corridor within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, offering the greatest landscape connectivity for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) populations in the region.

Mudumalai National Park receives about 1,420 mm (56 in) of rainfall annually, mostly during the southwest monsoon season from June to September. Temperatures are cooler from December to January but rise during April to June, which are the warmest months. Annual rainfall varies, with 1,100 mm (43 in) in the south and west and 600 mm (24 in) in the east.

Flora

Mudumalai National Park contains tropical and subtropical forests with many types of trees and plants. There are 498 different plant species in the area, including 154 types of trees, 77 shrubs, 214 herbs, and 53 vines. Teak (Tectona grandis) and axlewood (Anogeissus latifolia) are the most common tree species, with more than 105 trees per hectare (42 trees per acre). Other important trees include flame-of-the-forest (Butea monosperma), Indian laurel (Terminalia elliptica), kusum tree (Schleichera oleosa), weaver's beam tree (Schrebera swietenioides), Malabar kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium), Indian rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia), Malabar plum (Syzygium cumini), silk-cotton tree (Bombax ceiba), and Indian beech (Millettia pinnata). Moist deciduous forests also have areas with giant thorny bamboo (Bambusa bambos). Mango (Mangifera indica) and persimmon (Diospyros) grow near rivers. Climbing plants include orange climber (Zanthoxylum asiaticum), Wattakaka volubilis, frangipani vine (Chonemorpha fragrans), trellis-vine (Pergularia daemia), purple morning glory (Argyreia cuneata), striped cucumber (Diplocyclos palmatus), and several jasmine species. In shrubland areas, the main plants are Ceylon satinwood (Chloroxylon swietenia), red cedar (Erythroxylum monogynum), and catechu (Senegalia catechu).

Lantana camara is a plant that spreads quickly and harms the growth and spread of native Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) and Kydia calycina, but it does not affect other shrubs. A study on bird nesting habits found that red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) and red-whiskered bulbul (P. jocosus) build nests in the highest parts of Lantana camara during spring.

In 2019, a very large arjun tree (Terminalia arjuna) was found in the Moyar River valley. It was 32 meters tall (105 feet) and had a trunk circumference of 8.45 meters (27.7 feet). This tree was used by white-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), brown fish owl (Ketupa zeylonensis), spot-bellied eagle-owl (Bubo nipalensis), crested honey buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus), changeable hawk-eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus), and shikra (Accipiter badius) for resting.

Fauna

During the main flowering season, 394 nests of the giant honey bee (Apis dorsata) were found in the park from January to June 2007. Bee colonies had an average of 19 nests, mostly built in large trees.

A survey between November 2008 and February 2009 showed that about 29 Indian leopards (Panthera pardus fusca) and 19 Bengal tigers (P. tigris tigris) lived in the park's core area, which covers 107 km (41 sq mi). As of 2018, the tiger population in the larger Mudumalai Tiger Reserve was estimated to include 103 individuals that live there. Jungle cats (Felis chaus), rusty-spotted cats (Prionailurus rubiginosus), and leopard cats (P. bengalensis) were found during camera trap surveys in 2010–2011 and 2018. Two dhole (Cuon alpinus) packs were studied from 1989 to 1993. These packs lived in areas covering 83.3 and 54.2 km (32.2 and 20.9 sq mi) and included between four and 25 individuals during that time. Golden jackals (Canis aureus) and Nilgiri martens (Martes gwatkinsii) were also found in 2018.

Scat from sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) collected along forest roads and animal trails had remains from 18 plant species. Golden shower (Cassia fistula), Indian plum (Zizyphus mauritiana), and clammy cherry (Cordia obliqua) made up most of their diet, along with fungus-growing termites (Odontotermes), fire ants, and honey bees. Small Indian civets (Viverricula indica), Asian palm civets (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), and brown palm civets (P. jerdoni) live in both deciduous and semi-evergreen forest areas. Ruddy mongooses (Urva smithii) mainly live in deciduous forests, while stripe-necked mongooses (U. vitticollis) prefer riverine areas, and Indian grey mongooses (U. edwardsii) live in open spaces. Mongooses mainly hunt for pill millipedes, dung beetles, fruits, small rodents, birds, and reptiles. Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) groups were seen along the Moyar River in 2010 and 2011. Studies from 2015 to 2017 showed that these groups preferred rocky areas near fast-flowing water with loose sand and little plant cover.

The Asian elephant is the largest mammal in the park. In 2000, there were an estimated 536 to 1,001 individuals in 25 herds. Herds included up to 22 individuals. The gaur (Bos gaurus) is the largest ungulate in the park, with herds of up to 42 individuals that mainly live near water sources in grasslands. Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor) form small groups of up to five individuals but also gather in groups of up to 45 during the wet season. Chital (Axis axis) form large groups of at least 35 individuals, with some herds growing to more than 100 members in the wet season. Chital, Indian spotted chevrotains (Moschiola indica), and Indian muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak) were seen eating fallen fruit from Indian gooseberry trees in a forest monitoring area. These animals are considered the main seed dispersers in the park. Other animals present include four-horned antelopes (Tetracerus quadricornis), blackbucks (Antilope cervicapra), wild boars (Sus scrofa), Indian pangolins (Manis crassicaudata), and Indian crested porcupines (Hystrix indica).

Four bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) troops were studied in 1997. These troops had between four and 25 members and lived in areas covering 83.3 and 54.2 km (32.2 and 20.9 sq mi). They were found living together with other species.

In 1992, six Indian star tortoises (Geochelone elegans) were seen in scrubland at certain elevations.

Threats

From 1979 to 2011, 148 dead Asian elephants were found in the park, and 50 of them were killed by poachers. Traffic on three public roads that pass through Mudumalai National Park is a serious danger to wildlife. Between December 1998 and March 1999, 180 animals from 40 different species were killed by drivers on these roads. Between December 2006 and November 2007, 101 amphibians and 78 reptiles were killed by vehicles on a 6 km (3.7 mi) stretch of the national highway. These animals included species such as Indirana frogs, Indian skipper frogs (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis), bronzed frogs (Indosylvirana temporalis), pigmy wrinkled frogs (Nyctibatrachus beddomii), Asian common toads (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), common green forest lizards (Calotes calotes), Blanford's rock agamas (Psammophilus blanfordanus), Mysore day geckos (Cnemaspis mysoriensis), bronze grass skinks (Eutropis macularia), green keelbacks (Rhabdophis plumbicolor), trinket snakes (Coelognathus helena), Russell's vipers (Daboia russelii), common kraits (Bungarus caeruleus), and hump-nosed vipers (Hypnale hypnale). Between January 2014 and December 2016, 497 Indian palm squirrels (Funambulus palmarum) were found dead after hitting vehicles on a 40 km (25 mi) stretch of a state highway. In September 2016, a Bibron's coral snake that was 0.913 m (2 ft 11.9 in) long was found dead on the road.

Tourism resorts that are growing near the park and the increased need for firewood in the areas around the park are also threats to the ecosystem. In 1995, it was estimated that each person living near the park needed about 376 kg (829 lb) of firewood each year.

Between 1999 and 2013, six forest fires damaged dry deciduous forest areas in the northern part of the park. These fires affected areas ranging from 80 hectares (200 acres) to 85 km² (33 sq mi). The plant life in these burned areas takes more than 15 years to recover.