Citlaltépetl, which means "star mountain" in the Náhuatl language, is also called Pico de Orizaba. It is an active volcano and the tallest mountain in North America, as well as the highest peak in Mexico. It is the third tallest mountain in North America, following Denali (Mount McKinley) in the United States and Mount Logan in Canada. Citlaltépetl stands 5,636 meters (18,491 feet) above sea level at the eastern end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, where the states of Veracruz and Puebla meet. The volcano is currently not active but could become active again in the future. Its last eruption occurred in the 19th century. It is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world after Mount Kilimanjaro. Pico de Orizaba is ranked 16th in topographic isolation, which measures how far a mountain is from other mountains of similar height.
Toponymy
Pico de Orizaba is a mountain that looks over the valley and city of Orizaba, which is where its Spanish name comes from—meaning "Orizaba's peak." During the time when Spain controlled the area, the volcano was also called Cerro de San Andrés because of the nearby village of San Andrés Chalchicomula located at its base.
The mountain's Náhuatl name, Citlaltépetl, is made from the words citlalli (star) and tepētl (mountain), meaning "Star Mountain." This name is believed to come from the fact that the snow-covered top of the mountain can be seen from far away for many kilometers all year long. However, modern Náhuatl speakers in the Orizaba area do not use this name. Instead, they call it Istaktepetl (or Iztactépetl in the traditional way of writing Classical Nahuatl), which means "White Mountain." The name Citlaltépetl is now thought to have been created by a Spanish person who knew Náhuatl but did not know the mountain's actual name.
Another name, Poyauhtecatl, meaning "the one that colors or illuminates," has also been recorded. This name was given by the Tlaxcaltecs to remember their lost homeland.
Topography
Citlaltépetl, also known as Pico de Orizaba, rises to an elevation of 5,636 meters (18,491 feet) above sea level. It stands 4,922 meters (16,148 feet) higher than the surrounding land. Pico de Orizaba is the highest mountain in Mexico and the tallest volcano in North America. It is the third highest peak in North America, following Denali and Mount Logan. Globally, it ranks 7th in how high it stands above the surrounding land. It is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world, after Africa’s Mount Kilimanjaro, and is ranked 16th in how far it is from other similar peaks. Located about 110 kilometers (68 miles) west of the port city of Veracruz, its peak can be seen by ships arriving at the port in the Gulf of Mexico. At sunrise, sunlight hits the mountain while Veracruz remains in darkness. The mountain has an uneven shape, with the eastern side being the steepest and the northwestern side the most gentle. The gentle slopes on the northwestern side support large glaciers and are the most common path for hikers climbing to the summit.
Glaciers
Pico de Orizaba is one of only three volcanoes in Mexico that still have glaciers. It is home to the largest glacier in Mexico, called Gran Glaciar Norte. There are nine known glaciers on Orizaba: Gran Glaciar Norte, Lengua del Chichimeco, Jamapa, Toro, Glaciar de la Barba, Noroccidental, Occidental, Suroccidental, and Oriental. Scientists have not yet determined the equilibrium line altitude (ELA) for Orizaba. Snow on the south and southeast sides of the volcano melts quickly because of sunlight, but the cooler temperatures on the northwest and north sides allow glaciers to form. The angle of sunlight and wind patterns on the northwest and north sides help snow accumulate, creating a source for outlet glaciers. On the north side of Orizaba, Gran Glaciar Norte fills a long, highland basin and is the source for seven outlet glaciers. The main glacier extends 3.5 km (2.2 mi) north of the crater rim, has a surface area of about 9.08 km (3.51 sq mi), and stretches from 5,650 m (18,540 ft) to about 5,000 m (16,000 ft). It has an uneven, stepped shape partly caused by the shape of the bedrock beneath it. Most crevasses show ice about 50 m (160 ft) thick.
Below 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on the north side, the outlet glaciers Lengua del Chichimeco and Jamapa extend north and northwest for 1.5 km (0.93 mi) and 2 km (1.2 mi), respectively. The terminal lobe of Lengua del Chichimeco at 4,740 m (15,550 ft) has a gentle slope and a rounded shape typical of Mexican glaciers. Glaciar de Jamapa is the most distinct glacier. It leaves Gran Glaciar Norte at about 4,975 m (16,322 ft) and, after 2 km (1.2 mi) with a slope of 145 m/km (770 ft/mi), splits into two smaller tongues that end at 4,650 m (15,260 ft) and 4,640 m (15,220 ft). Both tongues end in wide, rounded ice fans that thin at their edges. The retreat of these tongues before 1994 caused erosion downstream and buried their edges with rock debris.
The west side of Gran Glaciar Norte produces five outlet glaciers. From north to south, the first two, Glaciar del Toro and Glaciar de la Barba, are hanging cliff or icefall glaciers that reach giant lava steps at 4,930 m (16,170 ft) and 5,090 m (16,700 ft), respectively. They then descend 200 to 300 m (660 to 980 ft) into stream valleys as large ice blocks but do not regrow there. About 1 km (0.62 mi) south, Glaciar Noroccidental, a small outlet glacier 300 m (980 ft) long, drains from Gran Glaciar Norte at about 5,100 m (16,700 ft) and slopes downward 500 m (1,600 ft) to 4,920 m (16,140 ft) with a slope of 255 m/km (1,350 ft/mi). Another 1 km (0.62 mi) farther south, Glaciar Occidental breaks away from Gran Glaciar Norte west of the summit crater at about 5,175 m (16,978 ft) as a steep, 1 km (0.62 mi) long glacier with a slope of 270 m/km (1,400 ft/mi), ending at 4,930 m (16,170 ft). From the southwest corner of the mountain, Glaciar Suroccidental, 1.6 km (0.99 mi) long, flows from Gran Glaciar Norte at 5,250 m (17,220 ft) with a slope of 200 m/km (1,100 ft/mi), ending at 4,930 m (16,170 ft) on a smooth surface.
East of the summit cone, Glaciar Oriental, a separate steep glacier 1.2 km (0.75 mi) long with a slope of 440 m/km (2,300 ft/mi), flows down the mountainside from about 5,600 to 5,070 m (18,370 to 16,630 ft). It contains many crevasses and seracs and is the most difficult glacier to climb. In 1958, Glaciar Oriental had a surface area of about 420,000 m (4,500,000 sq ft), making the total area of glaciers and firn field on Citlaltépetl about 9.5 km (3.7 sq mi). No earlier historical records of glacier movement (advance or recession) are known for Citlaltépetl's glaciers. Although Gran Glaciar Norte is covered with snow, the seven outlet glaciers on the irregular west edge of the ice cap are visible, especially Glaciar de Jamapa and Glaciar Occidental.
Climate
The climate of Pico de Orizaba, like the Sierra Madre Oriental, changes a lot because of differences in elevation and the direction of the wind. Because of its location and the mountain’s rough shape, the volcano has many different small climates. Plants change from tropical forests at lower areas on the east side to alpine forests at higher areas.
A lot of rain falls on the east side of the volcano because warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico rises, cools, and forms clouds. This causes fog and clouds to often cover the east side. The climate on the east side changes from tropical (Af) at lower areas to subtropical highland (Cfb) at higher areas. Temperatures do not change much throughout the year, and the average yearly rainfall is about 1,600 mm (63 inches).
Subtropical climates are found between 2,200 and 3,200 meters (7,200 and 10,500 feet) above sea level, where rain happens regularly all year. In autumn and winter, there are often freezes and light snow, but snow on the south and southeast sides melts quickly because of sunlight. The north side has a subtropical highland climate (Cwb). The south side mostly has a humid subtropical climate (Cwa), with the warmest average temperatures in April.
On the west side, strong winds called katabatic winds create a dry area (BSk) below 2,600 meters (8,500 feet) above sea level. While some parts of the west side have a climate (Cfa) with more rain, most of the area is semi-dry. Temperatures are usually temperate to warm, and yearly rainfall averages about 550 mm (22 inches). Plants here include grasses and shrubs, with few alpine species.
Between 3,200 and 4,300 meters (10,500 and 14,100 feet), where temperatures are usually between 2 and 5°C (36 and 41°F), a cold-summer subtropical highland climate (Cfc) is common. Above 4,300 meters (14,100 feet), where yearly temperatures average below −2°C (28°F), alpine tundra (ET) covers the top. Heavy snow and blizzards happen often. Snow on the south and southeast melts due to sunlight, but snow stays on the north and northwest sides. A large area of about 31 km² (12 square miles) experiences extreme cold.
Geology
Pico de Orizaba developed through three stages, with the most recent beginning about 16,000 years ago during the late Pleistocene and Holocene periods. Citlaltépetl is made up of three layered stratovolcanoes and dome-shaped rock formations: Torrecillas (650–250,000 years ago), Espolón de Oro (210–16,000 years ago), and Citlaltépetl (16,000 years ago to the present). The volcano formed from thick andesitic and dacitic lava flows, along with repeated explosive eruptions and lava flows, which created its famous cone shape. The volcano is currently dormant but not extinct. Its most recent eruption occurred in 1846 with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 2. Earlier eruptions took place in: 1687, 1613, 1589–1569, 1566, 1555–1545, 1539–1533, 1351, 1260, 1187, 1175, 1157, 220 AD, 140 AD, 90 AD, 40 AD, ~780 BC, ~1500 BC, ~2110 BC, ~2300 BC, ~2500 BC, ~2780 BC, ~4690 BC, ~6220 BC, ~6710 BC, ~7030 BC, and ~7530 BC. The most powerful eruption in the volcano’s history is believed to have occurred around 6710 BC, reaching a VEI of 5, with lava dome formation and pyroclastic flows.
The volcano’s crater is oval-shaped, with a transverse width of 478 meters (1,568 feet) and a conjugate width of 410 meters (1,350 feet). The crater has an estimated area of 154,830 square meters (1,666,600 square feet) and a maximum depth of 300 meters (980 feet). Pico de Orizaba is covered by an ice cap with several glaciers. A glacier called the Jamapa Glacier, located on the northeastern side of the peak, has played a major role in shaping the volcano. The Jamapa Glacier has significantly influenced the landforms around the volcano.
Geography
Pico de Orizaba is located at 19°1′48″N 97°16′12″W, about 110 kilometers (68 miles) west of the Gulf of Mexico and 200 kilometers (120 miles) east of Mexico City, on the border between the states of Veracruz and Puebla. The volcano is approximately 480 kilometers (300 miles) south of the Tropic of Cancer. Pico de Orizaba is part of the southeastern end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, a volcanic chain that stretches from west to east across Central Mexico. A smaller peak, called Sierra Negra, lies about six kilometers to the southwest of Pico de Orizaba. Sierra Negra reaches a height of 4,640 meters (15,223 feet). The road to the observatory on Sierra Negra’s summit is the highest road in North America.
Pico de Orizaba, as part of the Sierra Madre Oriental, forms a natural barrier between the coastal plains of the Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican Plateau. The volcano prevents moisture from the Gulf of Mexico from reaching central Mexico, affecting the climates of both regions. The states of Veracruz and Puebla rely on Pico de Orizaba to supply fresh water. The largest river that begins on the volcano is the Jamapa River.
History
Pico de Orizaba was important to pre-Hispanic cultures, including the Nahuatl-speaking Mexica and the Totonacs. The volcano appears in many stories from these cultures, influencing Nahua beliefs about the world, the universe, and the end of the world.
During the Spanish Conquest of Mexico, Hernán Cortés traveled through the foothills of Pico de Orizaba. The volcano and nearby mountains made his path to Tenochtitlan harder, causing delays. In the 1600s, the Spanish Crown funded roads to avoid the volcano. One road went south of the volcano through Orizaba and Fortín de las Flores, becoming a major trade route between Mexico City and Veracruz on the Gulf Coast. A shorter road was built by Jesuits to help establish settlements near the volcano’s base. The Spanish used the volcano as a landmark to find the port of Veracruz. Many battles happened near the volcano during Mexico’s fight for independence.
In 1839, Henri Galeotti was the first European to explore the volcano but did not reach the top. During the American occupation of Mexico in 1848, two American soldiers, F. Maynard and William F. Raynolds, became the first known people to hike to the summit. In 1851, the French explorer Alejandro Doignon reached the summit and saw a flagpole left by the Americans in 1848. In the mid-1800s, many scientists studied the volcano, including the German botanist Hugo Fink, who recorded the many plant species found there. In 1873, Martin Tritschler raised the Mexican flag at the summit.
Pico de Orizaba National Park
On December 16, 1936, President Lázaro Cárdenas established a national park to protect the natural beauty of Pico de Orizaba. The park covers 19,750 hectares (48,800 acres) and includes the volcano, the surrounding area, and the towns of Tlachichuca, Ciudad Serdán, La Perla, Mariano Escobedo, and Calcahualco. The federal law took effect on January 4, 1937.
Climbing and recreation
Pico de Orizaba draws many climbers from around the world each year. There are several ways to approach and climb the volcano, and many people try to reach the summit. Most climbers attempt the mountain between October and March when the weather is better. During this time, temperatures stay similar each month because the area is in the tropics. From April to September, the region experiences heavy rain, making climbing more difficult. The most commonly used path starts at the base camp called Piedra Grande Hut and goes through the Jamapa Glacier, which is located at an elevation of 4,270 meters (14,010 feet) above sea level.
Another option is to begin at a high camp near the base of the glacier, which is at an elevation of 4,900 meters (16,100 feet). For experienced climbers seeking a more difficult challenge, there is a technical ice climb called the Serpents Head, which includes 10 sections of grade 3 ice. The southern side of the volcano offers another challenging route. Although the path is shorter, it is steeper and harder to climb. There are no glaciers on the southern side. The final climb to the summit usually follows a glacier route that is generally safe and free of crevasses. The caldera can be walked around with relative ease, though one part of the path requires a short, exposed walk across steep rock and ice above the Glacier Este.