Glacier National Park is part of a group of 43 parks and park reserves in Canada, and one of seven national parks in British Columbia. Created in 1886, the park covers an area of 1,349 km (521 sq mi) and includes part of the Selkirk Mountains, which are part of the larger Columbia Mountains. It also includes the Rogers Pass National Historic Site.
The park's history is connected to two main transportation routes in Canada: the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), completed in 1885, and the Trans-Canada Highway, completed in 1963. Rogers Pass, located in the center of the park, was difficult for explorers to reach until 1881. The railway brought tourism, led to the creation of Glacier National Park, and helped build a popular alpine hotel. The heavy snows and steep, avalanche-prone valleys in the park made transportation difficult, requiring special railway engineering and avalanche control efforts.
The park has tall mountains, large glaciers, and one of Canada's largest cave systems. Its thick forests support many large mammals, birds, and alpine animals. The area is known for receiving heavy snowfall. The park has many trails, three campgrounds, and four backcountry huts and cabins. Because of the major transportation routes that cross through it, Glacier National Park receives many visitors.
History
The Selkirk Mountains were first noticed by Europeans in 1811 when explorer David Thompson of the North West Company traveled near them along the Columbia River. He named the mountains Nelson's Mountains after Lord Horatio Nelson. Later, the mountains were renamed after Lord Thomas Douglas Selkirk, an executive from the Hudson's Bay Company.
Finding a path through the Selkirks became important after work on the Canadian Pacific Railway began. Building the railway was required for the Colony of British Columbia to join Canada in 1867. In 1865, Canadian Pacific Surveyor Walter Moberly led an expedition up the Illecillewaet River, which he named using the Okanangan word for "swift water." Although Moberly had recently found Eagle Pass through nearby mountains, he failed to find a path through the Selkirks after getting stuck in the Tangier Creek area. His group stopped exploring because of the late season, and Moberly had to return.
In 1881, Major Albert Bowman Rogers led an expedition up the Illecillewaet River and discovered a usable pass through the mountains. Rogers received a $5,000 reward for finding the route. In 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway built a line through Rogers Pass. The following year, trains traveled west to the Pacific for the first time in Canada. The federal government and the CPR recognized the area’s potential for tourism because of its mountains and glaciers. After Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and his wife visited the Rockies on the newly completed railroad, he returned to Ottawa inspired and helped create Glacier and Yoho National Parks. These parks were established on October 10, 1886, becoming the second and third national parks in Canada, after Banff, which was created the year before.
The steep grade of the railway near Rogers Pass was too steep for dining cars, so the CPR built a hotel west of the pass in 1886. This hotel joined other CPR-owned hotels across Canada, such as Mount Stephen House in Yoho National Park, built the same year with the same floor plan. Glacier House, located near the Illecillewaet Glacier (called the Great Glacier at the time), became a hub for tourism, climbing, glacier study, and photography in the Selkirks. The hotel was expanded in 1905 and 1911 and was considered one of western Canada’s top tourist destinations in the early 1900s.
Glacier House attracted climbers from around the world. Because of its high elevation, climbers could reach alpine areas quickly. In 1899, the CPR hired Swiss guides to help less experienced tourists navigate the mountains. Many first climbs of peaks in the park were made during the hotel’s operation. The hotel also attracted scientists who studied the mountain environment. Mary Vaux Walcott and her brothers, George and William Vaux, visited the area many times and began the first scientific studies of the Illecillewaet Glacier.
Glacier House is called "the first center of alpinism" in North America by historian William Lowell Putnam of the American Alpine Club. It attracted many European and American climbers in its first two decades. William Spotswood Green was the first European climber to note the climbing opportunities near the CPR line. Green and Henry Swanzy made the first recorded climbs of major peaks in 1888, including Mount Bonney and Green’s Peak. Harold Topham, a British climber, made many first ascents in 1890, including Mount Fox. He later joined Henry Forster and two Swiss climbers, Emil Huber and Carl Sulzer, to explore southern peaks. Huber and Sulzer also claimed the first climb of Mount Sir Donald.
Arthur Oliver Wheeler, a cartographer and founding member of the Alpine Club of Canada (ACC), visited Glacier House in 1901. This began a 30-year connection with the northern Selkirks, during which Wheeler mapped the region, wrote books about its geography, and explored much of the park. An ACC hut near the Illecillewaet campground, a peak, and a pass are named after him. Professor Charles Ernest Fay, first president of the American Alpine Club, promoted the park in the club’s magazine after visiting in the 1890s. By the 1900s, most of the park’s major peaks had been visited by humans.
After its first winter in 1886, the CPR realized that heavy snows at Rogers Pass posed a serious problem. Large wooden structures called snow sheds were built to protect the railway from avalanches. These sheds became fire risks in summer, so a separate summer track was built. In 1910, while clearing an avalanche, another slide occurred on Avalanche Mountain, killing 62 workers. More than half of those killed were of Japanese descent. Between 1886 and 1916, 200 railway workers died. In 1912, the CPR admitted defeat and started building an eight-kilometer tunnel under the pass and Mount Macdonald. The Connaught Tunnel opened in 1916.
The new tunnel bypassed Glacier House’s siding, reducing rail traffic and leading to the hotel’s decline. It was closed in 1925 and torn down four years later. For the next 30 years, the park had few visitors except for campers from the Alpine Club of Canada’s summer camps. Until then, travelers crossing the Columbia Mountains had to use the Big Bend Highway, which looped around the Columbia River. With plans to flood parts of that valley for hydroelectric projects under the Columbia River Treaty, a new highway route was needed. In 1963, the Trans-Canada Highway was built through Rogers Pass, bringing many tourists back to the park. Parks Canada built new campgrounds and expanded trails.
Geography
The park is located in the northern part of the Selkirk Mountains, which is a smaller range within the larger Columbia Mountains. It has many glaciers and fast-moving rivers. The park is divided by two important transportation routes: the Trans-Canada Highway and the Canadian Pacific Railway. The closest towns are Revelstoke to the west and Golden to the east.
The Columbia Mountains rise from the plateaus of the Central Interior and stretch eastward toward the Rocky Mountain Trench. Geologically different from the nearby Rocky Mountains, the Columbia Mountains are divided into four smaller ranges: the Cariboos, Monashees, Selkirks, and Purcells. Glacier National Park covers part of the northern Selkirks and a narrow area of the northern Purcells. The park’s landscape changes from rounded mountains and ridges in the east, north, and west to steep, sharp peaks in the central and southern areas. In 1901 and 1902, A.O. Wheeler measured many of the park’s mountains using a system of fixed points and photographs. In the early 1900s, the area was called the "Canadian Alps." Most place names in the park come from historical figures, such as explorers, surveyors, mountaineers, and railway and Hudson’s Bay Company leaders.
The highest point in the park is Mount Dawson, which reaches 3,377 meters (11,079 feet). Other notable peaks include Mount Sir Donald at 3,284 meters (10,774 feet), Mount Macdonald at 2,883 meters (9,459 feet), Mount McNicoll at 2,610 meters (8,560 feet), and Mount Abbott at 2,465 meters (8,087 feet). Several mountain ranges, such as the Hermit Range, Bonney and Bostock Groups, Van Horne Range, Purity Range, and Dawson Range, are partly or fully within the park. These include Uto Peak, which stands at 2,927 meters (9,603 feet) in the Sir Donald Range.
The park contains 131 glaciers larger than 0.05 square kilometers (0.019 square miles), covering 133 square kilometers (51 square miles) of the park. Over Earth’s history, North America has experienced repeated cycles of glaciation, where large ice sheets moved across the land. The last glacial period ended about 12,000 years ago, and before that, nearly all areas of the park except the highest peaks were covered in ice. These ice movements shaped the park’s steep, U-shaped valleys and rounded smaller peaks, especially in the western part of the park. Today, the glaciers in the park are shrinking and retreating. They are among the most studied glaciers in North America.
Glaciers in the park have lost a significant amount of size in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Measurements of glaciers began in the 1900s with the Vaux family and A.O. Wheeler. Modern studies using satellite images started in the 1980s with Simon Ommaney’s work. Regular glacier surveys have been conducted since then, with the most recent data collected up to 2011. Between 2000 and 2011, the total glacial surface area in the park decreased by 19.4 square kilometers (7.5 square miles).
Because of its location near the highway and railway, the Illecillewaet Glacier is the most visited and photographed. Previously called the Great Glacier, it was a major tourist attraction during the Glacier House period from 1886 to 1925. The glacier’s end, once easily reached from the Glacier House site, has now moved far up the mountainside. The beginning part of the glacier extends far to the south and gives rise to the Geikie Glacier. Most large glacial features are located south of the Trans-Canada Highway. Other major glaciers include the Deville, Dawson, Asulkan, Bishops, Black, Duncan, Grand, and Avalanche. Glaciers in the park vary in appearance: high-altitude features are smooth and uniform, slopes have cracks and crevasses, and valley floors are dark with debris. In summer, many glaciers turn red due to a type of snow algae called watermelon snow.
All rivers in the park are part of the Columbia River drainage system. These rivers are fast-moving and fed by glaciers. They helped shape the park’s steep valleys and canyons and carry large amounts of silt and rock, giving them a milky white color. In summer, these rivers have daily changes in flow: they rise in the afternoon when melting snow and ice is strongest and drop significantly at night when temperatures fall.
The major rivers in the park are the Illecillewaet, the Beaver, and the headwaters of the Incomappleux and Duncan Rivers. Large creeks and streams include Mountain Creek, Cougar Creek (which flows underground through the Nakimu Caves), and Battle Creek. The Beaver and Illecillewaet rivers sometimes flood. Flooding in 1983 and 2012 caused damage to the highway and railway.
Geology
The geology of the northern Selkirks shows the major changes in the Earth's crust that formed the land in western North America. Like much of British Columbia, this area was first studied by Dr. George Mercer Dawson, a well-known surveyor and geologist, in 1890. Topographical maps were created by A.O. Wheeler in the early 1900s. In the 1970s, Wheeler's grandson, Dr. John Wheeler, completed a detailed geological survey from both the ground and the air.
From Rogers Pass, layers of quartzite and slate can be seen, showing that the mountain range was once part of a large, muddy continental shelf 600 million years ago. About 185 million years ago, movements of Earth's plates from the west began to push and squeeze this material, some of it sinking underground and some rising to form the Selkirks. Lime from coral and other living things was pressed into limestone, which is found in the Cougar Brook area. Marble veins are found in the metamorphic rocks of the high peaks. Although erosion and glaciers wear down the mountains, the pressure from the rocks below continues to lift them upward. Geologists have grouped the rocks of the Columbia Mountains, and some of these groups are found in the northern Selkirks. The slates belong to the Horsethief Creek and Lardeau groups, quartzite is part of the Hamill group, limestone is in the Badshot Formation, and metamorphic rocks are classified in the Shuswap Metamorphic Complex.
The limestone in the park is worn away by water from Cougar Brook, a process that created the Nakimu Caves. First discovered in 1907 and originally called the Caves of Cheops, then Deutchmann Caves, this 6-kilometer-long cave system is one of the largest in Canada. Carbonic acid in the water from Cougar Brook breaks down and softens the limestone. The water also carries crushed rock from glaciers, which helps carve new paths in the rock. The caves contain a rare substance called moonmilk, which is a mix of calcium carbonate held together by bacteria. Because moonmilk is fragile and cave environments were harmed by early visitors, Parks Canada has closed the caves to the public. Only organized groups and experienced cave explorers may enter with a permit.
Ecology
Glacier National Park has many different types of habitats. On the western side, there are lush temperate rainforests in the valleys. In the higher areas, there are cold, icy alpine regions covered with rocks and ice. On the eastern side, the forests are drier and include fir and pine trees. Four of British Columbia’s biogeoclimatic zones are found in the park: Interior cedar/hemlock, Engelmann spruce/subalpine fir, Interior Douglas-fir near the east, and alpine tundra at high elevations. Parks Canada describes these areas as "rainforest, snow forest, and no forest." The park is home to many animals, including large mammals like caribou and grizzly bears, and birds such as Steller’s jay and the golden eagle.
The western valleys have thick, wet forests with dense plant life below the trees. Wide valleys, like the Illecillewaet, have rare wetlands with plants such as skunk cabbage and water hemlock. Elsewhere in the lower valleys, trees like Western red cedar, western white pine, western hemlock, Interior Douglas-fir, and white birch grow. Ground plants include devil’s club, blueberries, liverwort, and ferns.
At middle elevations, the subalpine forest zone begins. This area has Engelmann spruce, mountain hemlock, and subalpine fir. The forest floor is thick with rhododendron, berry plants, moss, and lichens. At higher elevations, the forest opens into meadows and slide chutes covered with grasses, shrubs, and alpine wildflowers. Scientists have identified 546 species of flowering plants in the park. From late July to mid-September, alpine wildflowers bloom in large numbers.
The alpine meadows extend into the alpine tundra, where poor soil, heavy snow, cold temperatures, and a short growing season make it hard for most plants to grow. Only tough plants like sedge grasses, heathers, and lichens survive here.
The park’s forests support many animals, which are regularly monitored by park staff. Fifty-three mammal species live in the park. Bears are common in the snow zone, where berry-rich avalanche slides provide food for black and grizzly bears. These bears hibernate in deep dens during winter. Other predators include timber wolves, coyotes, red foxes, wolverines, cougars, and lynx.
Mountain goats are the most common large hoofed animals in the park. A study in 1985 counted 300 mountain goats in the high peaks and valleys. Caribou migrate through some park valleys, while elk, mule deer, and white-tailed deer are found throughout the park. Heavy snow in winter forces most hoofed animals to leave the park for lower areas nearby. Moose are rarely seen in the park. Squirrels live in the lower forests, and alpine animals include pika, hoary marmots, and martens.
Glacier National Park has 235 bird species, but most are migratory and only visit during summer. Thirty species live in the park year-round, including woodpeckers, golden eagles, owls, ravens, Steller’s jays, and golden-crowned kinglets. Pine siskins sometimes appear in large numbers for a year before leaving. American dippers live near waterfalls and streams throughout the park.
Climate
Rain and snow are important factors in the Interior Wetbelt area. The park spans two major weather systems, where warm, wet air from the Pacific Ocean meets cold, dry air from the continent. This moist air is pushed up the Columbia Mountains, leading to frequent rain and snowstorms, especially in winter. Subalpine areas receive an average of 1.995 metres (6 ft 6.5 in) of precipitation each year. This heavy rainfall and snowfall create large icefields and glaciers that cover much of the park's high elevations. Rogers Pass can receive up to 17 metres (56 ft) of snow during winter.
On the eastern side of the park near the Purcells, the area is in a rain shadow and receives less precipitation. This region experiences wide temperature and weather changes due to its steep mountain terrain. Winter temperatures in the Selkirks are milder than similar elevations in the nearby Rockies, while summer temperatures often reach the high teens Celsius.
Rogers Pass has a subarctic climate (Dfc) or a subalpine climate with short, mild, and rainy summers and long, cold, and very snowy winters. Rain and snowfall are heavy and consistent throughout the year, with the highest amounts in January.
Keeping the Trans-Canada Highway open through Rogers Pass is a major challenge. Parks Canada works with provincial highway crews and the Canadian Armed Forces to maintain the road as much as possible. Parks staff monitor snow levels and predict avalanche risks. They also collaborate with the Canadian Forces to trigger controlled avalanches. The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery uses 105mm Howitzer cannons placed at circular gun positions along the highway. During controlled avalanche operations, the highway is closed, shells are fired at specific points identified by Parks forecasters, and smaller avalanches are created to reduce risks.
Facilities
Each year, more than four million people visit the park, but most are only passing through on the Trans-Canada Highway. About 15% of visitors stop to use park facilities. Of those who explore the park outside their vehicles, two-thirds are from outside Canada. The park has 140 kilometres (87 miles) of official hiking trails.
The Parks Canada administration and Rogers Pass Discovery Centre are located at Rogers Pass. The centre is the base for educational programs about Glacier and Mount Revelstoke National Parks. It includes a theatre, an exhibit hall with railway models, natural history displays, wildlife specimens, and a bookstore.
There are three campgrounds in the park. Illecillewaet is the largest, with two smaller campgrounds at Loop Brook and Sir Donald. Five areas are designated for backcountry camping. Parks Canada and the Alpine Club of Canada manage four alpine huts and cabins for backcountry visitors. The Wheeler Hut is the oldest and largest, located near the Illecillewaet camping area. The Asulkan Hut is at 2,100 metres (6,900 feet) on Asulkan Pass. The Sapphire Col Hut is a simple shelter near The Dome. The Glacier Circle Cabin in the Beaver River valley serves as a base for exploring the southern parts of the park. No camping facilities in the park are maintained during winter months.