Glacier National Park is a national park in the United States located in northwestern Montana, near the Canada–United States border. The park covers more than 1 million acres (4,100 km²) and includes parts of two mountain ranges (sub-ranges of the Rocky Mountains), more than 130 named lakes, over 1,000 plant species, and hundreds of animal species. This large, untouched ecosystem is called the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem," a protected area covering 16,000 mi² (41,000 km²).
Before Glacier National Park was established, Native Americans lived in the area. When European explorers arrived, the Blackfeet people lived in the east, and the Flathead people lived in the west. In 1895, the Blackfeet gave up their mountainous lands to the federal government, which later became part of the park. After the park was created on May 11, 1910, the Great Northern Railway built hotels and chalets, many of which are now listed as National Historic Landmarks. A total of 350 locations in the park are on the National Register of Historic Places. By 1932, the Going-to-the-Sun Road was completed, later named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark, and it made it easier for visitors to reach the park’s center.
The mountains in Glacier National Park began forming 170 million years ago when ancient rocks were pushed upward over younger rock layers, a process called the Lewis Overthrust. These sedimentary rocks contain some of the best examples of early life fossils on Earth. The shapes of the Lewis and Livingston mountain ranges and the positions and sizes of the lakes show evidence of glaciers that once covered the area. In the mid-19th century, there were about 150 glaciers larger than 25 acres (10 ha). By 2010, only 25 remained. Scientists believe all active glaciers may disappear by 2030 if current climate conditions continue.
Glacier National Park still has most of its original plant and animal species since Europeans discovered the area. Large animals such as American black bears, grizzly bears, bighorn sheep, elk, moose, mountain lions, mountain goats, gray wolves, wolverines, and Canadian lynx live in the park. Hundreds of bird species, more than a dozen fish species, and many reptiles and amphibians have been recorded. Thousands of butterfly, pollinating insect, and other invertebrate species also live there. The park has many ecosystems, from prairies to tundra. Western redcedar and hemlock forests grow in the southwest part of the park. Forest fires happen every year except in 1964. In 1936, 64 fires occurred, the most ever recorded. In 2003, six fires burned about 136,000 acres (550 km²), more than 13% of the park.
Glacier National Park borders Waterton Lakes National Park in Canada. Together, they form the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, the world’s first International Peace Park, established in 1932. Both parks were named Biosphere Reserves by the United Nations in 1976 and World Heritage Sites in 1995. In April 2017, the joint park received a provisional Gold Tier designation as a Waterton-Glacier International Dark Sky Park from the International Dark Sky Association, making it the first transboundary dark sky park.
History
The first people in the Glacier area who are related to today's tribes were the Flathead (Salish) and Kootenai, Shoshone, and Cheyenne. The Blackfeet lived on the eastern slopes of what later became the park, as well as the Great Plains nearby. The park region gave the Blackfeet shelter from the strong winter winds of the plains, helping them hunt other animals besides bison. The Blackfeet Indian Reservation is next to the park on the east, while the Flathead Indian Reservation is west and south of the park. When the Blackfeet Reservation was created in 1855 through the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the eastern part of the current park up to the Continental Divide. To the Blackfeet, the mountains in this area, especially Chief Mountain and the region near Two Medicine, were called the "Backbone of the World" and were visited during vision quests. In 1895, Chief White Calf of the Blackfeet allowed the sale of about 800,000 acres (3,200 km²) of mountain land to the U.S. government for $1.5 million, with the agreement that the Blackfeet could still hunt there as long as the land remained public. This created the current boundary between the park and the reservation.
Far in the northwest of Montana, near the top of mountain peaks, lies an area that was not mapped—called the Crown of the Continent.
In 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition came within 50 miles (80 km) of the area that is now the park. After 1850, many explorations helped people understand the region that later became the park. In 1885, George Bird Grinnell hired James Willard Schultz to guide him on a hunting trip into what would become the park. After visiting the area several times, Grinnell was inspired by the scenery and spent the next 20 years trying to create a national park. In 1901, Grinnell described the region as the "Crown of the Continent." His work to protect the land made him the main person behind the effort to establish the park. A few years after Grinnell's first visit, Henry L. Stimson and two friends, including a Blackfoot, climbed the steep east side of Chief Mountain in 1892.
In 1891, the Great Northern Railway crossed the Continental Divide at Marias Pass, which is near the southern edge of the park. To attract passengers, the railway promoted the beauty of the region. The company lobbied the U.S. Congress, and in 1897, the area was set aside as a forest preserve. Under this designation, mining was allowed but was not profitable. People who wanted to protect the land continued their efforts. In 1910, with help from the Boone and Crockett Club and leaders like George Bird Grinnell and Louis W. Hill, president of the Great Northern Railway, a bill was passed by Congress to create a national park. President William Howard Taft signed the bill into law in 1910. In 1910, Grinnell wrote, "This Park, the country owes to the Boone and Crockett Club, whose members discovered the region, suggested it being set aside, caused the bill to be introduced into Congress, and awakened interest in it all over the country."
From May to August 1910, Fremont Nathan Haines, the forest reserve supervisor, managed the park's resources as the first acting superintendent. In August 1910, William Logan became the park's first superintendent. While the forest reserve status allowed the Blackfeet to use the land as they had before, the law creating the national park did not mention guarantees for Native Americans. The U.S. government said that the land's special status as a National Park changed its purpose, and the Blackfeet's rights ended, as confirmed by the Court of Claims in 1935. Some Blackfeet believed their rights still existed by law. In the 1890s, several times, tense situations were avoided.
Under Louis W. Hill's leadership, the Great Northern Railway built hotels and chalets in the park in the 1910s to encourage tourism. These buildings, run by a company called the Glacier Park Company, were designed to look like Swiss buildings as part of Hill's plan to make Glacier "America's Switzerland." Hill wanted to bring artists to the park and display their work in the lodges. His hotels did not make money but attracted many visitors who traveled by train. Tourists often rode horses between lodges or used seasonal stagecoach routes to reach areas like Many Glacier.
Chalets built between 1910 and 1915 included Belton, St. Mary, Going-to-the-Sun, Many Glacier, Two Medicine, Sperry, Granite Park, Cut Bank, and Gunsight Lake. The railway also built Glacier Park Lodge near the park's east side and Many Glacier Hotel on the east shore of Swiftcurrent Lake. Louis Hill chose the locations for these buildings based on their scenic views. Another developer, John Lewis, built the Lewis Glacier Hotel on Lake McDonald in 1913–1914. The Great Northern Railway bought the hotel in 1930 and renamed it Lake McDonald Lodge. The railway also created four tent camps at Red Eagle Lake, Cosley Lake, Fifty Mountain, and Goat Haunt. The chalets and tent camps were spaced about 10–18 miles apart and connected by trails built by the railroad. "Because there was no federal money, the Great Northern paid for all trail construction during this time, but was later reimbursed when funds became available." Today, only Sperry, Granite Park, and Belton Chalets are still open, while a building once part of Two Medicine Chalet is now Two Medicine Store. The remaining chalet and hotel buildings in the park are now National Historic Landmarks. In total, 350 buildings and structures in the park are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including ranger stations, patrol cabins, fire lookouts, and visitor facilities. In 2017, Sperry Cha
Park management
Glacier National Park is managed by the National Park Service, with the park's main office located in West Glacier, Montana. In 2019, the park had an average of about 3.5 million visitors, which was higher than its 2017 record of 3.31 million visitors. Since 2012, the park has had at least 2 million visitors each year. From 2014 to 2018, the park set new records for the number of visitors each year.
To prepare for the park's 100th anniversary in 2010, major repairs to the Going-to-the-Sun Road were completed. The Federal Highway Administration worked with the National Park Service on this project. Plans included repairing important buildings like visitor centers and historic hotels, as well as improving wastewater treatment systems and campgrounds by the anniversary date. The National Park Service also studied fish populations in Lake McDonald to better protect native fish. Other planned work included trail restoration, education programs for young people, park improvements, and community activities.
The National Park Service is responsible for preserving and protecting natural and cultural resources. The Organic Act of August 25, 1916, created the National Park Service as a federal agency. A key part of the Act states that the service must "conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife" in national parks and ensure they remain "unimpaired for future generations." Following this rule, hunting, mining, logging, and removing natural or cultural resources are not allowed in the park. Oil and gas exploration is also not permitted. These rules caused conflicts with the nearby Blackfeet Indian Reservation, as the Blackfeet had agreed to sell their land to the United States government with the condition that they could continue using the area in ways like hunting.
In 1974, a study was sent to Congress that identified 95% of the park as suitable for wilderness designation. Although Glacier National Park has not officially been declared a wilderness area, the National Park Service manages the areas listed in the study as wilderness until Congress makes a final decision. Ninety-three percent of the park is currently managed as wilderness, even though it has not been officially designated as such.
Geography and geology
Glacier National Park is surrounded by different areas on each side. To the north, it is next to Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta, and to the south and west, it is near the Flathead Provincial Forest and Akamina-Kishinena Provincial Park in British Columbia. The western edge of the park is formed by the north fork of the Flathead River, while the middle fork of the same river marks the southern boundary. The eastern side of the park is mostly bordered by the Blackfeet Indian Reservation. The Lewis and Clark and Flathead National Forests form the southern and western edges. To the south of these forests lies the remote Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex.
The park has more than 700 lakes, but only 131 have been given names as of 2016. Lake McDonald, located on the western side, is the longest at 10 miles (16 km) and the deepest at 464 feet (141 m). Smaller lakes, called tarns, are found in areas shaped by glaciers. Some of these lakes, such as Avalanche Lake and Cracker Lake, have a milky turquoise color because of tiny particles from glaciers. These particles also make some streams appear white. Glacier National Park lakes stay cold all year, with surface temperatures rarely rising above 50 °F (10 °C). Cold water limits the growth of plankton, which keeps the lakes very clear. However, the lack of plankton means that pollutants stay in the water longer. Because of this, the lakes are considered important indicators of environmental changes.
There are about 200 waterfalls in the park. During dry seasons, many of these waterfalls become smaller or stop flowing completely. Some of the largest waterfalls are in the Two Medicine region, McDonald Falls in the McDonald Valley, and Swiftcurrent Falls near the Many Glacier Hotel. Bird Woman Falls, one of the tallest, drops 492 feet (150 m) from a hanging valley near Mount Oberlin.
The rocks in the park are mostly sedimentary rocks from the Belt Supergroup, which were formed in ancient seas over 1.6 billion to 800 million years ago. When the Rocky Mountains formed 170 million years ago, a large area of rock called the Lewis Overthrust was pushed eastward 50 miles (80 km). This movement placed older rocks on top of newer ones. One example of this is Chief Mountain, a tall peak near the park’s eastern edge that rises 2,500 feet (800 m) above the Great Plains. The park has six mountains over 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in height, with Mount Cleveland being the tallest at 10,466 feet (3,190 m). Triple Divide Peak, which sends water to three different ocean basins, is considered the highest point of the North American continent.
The rocks in Glacier National Park are among the best-preserved Proterozoic sedimentary rocks in the world. These rocks contain important records of early life, such as tiny layers, ripple marks, and fossils of stromatolites, which are ancient algae-like organisms. A discovery in the park pushed back the known start of eukaryotic life by a billion years.
Glacier National Park’s mountains were shaped by glaciers from the last ice age, which disappeared about 12,000 years ago. Evidence of glaciers remains in the park, including U-shaped valleys, cirques, and lakes. After the ice age, the climate changed, with a cooling period called the Little Ice Age (1550–1850) causing glaciers to grow slightly. However, since the 1900s, glaciers have been shrinking rapidly. By 2010, only 25 glaciers remained, and scientists predict they may disappear by 2030. This loss of glaciers is part of a global trend.
Between 1850 and 1979, glaciers in the park lost 73% of their ice. In 1850, glaciers near Blackfoot and Jackson Glaciers covered 5,337 acres (21.6 km²), but by 1979, that area had only 1,828 acres (7.4 km²) of ice. Jackson Glacier was once part of Blackfoot Glacier but has since become a separate glacier.
The loss of glaciers may harm the park’s ecosystems by reducing cold-water habitats and affecting water levels. This could increase the risk of forest fires and harm wildlife. Glacier loss may also reduce the park’s beauty for visitors. In 2019, some incorrect information spread online, claiming that the National Park Service changed materials about the park.
Wildlife and ecology
Glacier is part of a large, protected ecosystem called the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem." This area is a mostly untouched wilderness with high-quality natural conditions. Almost all the plants and animals that were present when European explorers first arrived in the region are still found in the park today.
Over 1,132 plant species have been identified in the park. The forest is mostly made up of coniferous trees, such as Engelmann spruce, Douglas fir, subalpine fir, limber pine, and western larch, which is a type of conifer that loses its needles each fall. Cottonwood and aspen are more common deciduous trees found at lower elevations, usually near lakes and streams. The timberline on the eastern side of the park is about 800 feet (244 m) lower than on the western side because of colder winds and weather from the Great Plains. West of the Continental Divide, the forest gets more rain and is more protected from winter cold, leading to denser forests with taller trees. Above the forested areas, alpine tundra conditions exist, where grasses and small plants grow in areas with as little as three months of snow-free time each year. Thirty plant species are found only in the park and nearby forests. Beargrass, a tall flowering plant, is often seen near water sources and is common in July and August. Wildflowers like monkeyflower, glacier lily, fireweed, balsamroot, and Indian paintbrush are also common.
The forested areas are divided into three main climate zones. The west and northwest are dominated by spruce and fir trees, while the southwest has red cedar and hemlock. Areas east of the Continental Divide have a mix of pine, spruce, fir, and prairie. Cedar-hemlock groves near Lake McDonald are the easternmost examples of a Pacific climate ecosystem.
Whitebark pine trees have been harmed by blister rust, a non-native fungus. In Glacier and nearby areas, 30% of whitebark pines have died, and over 70% of the remaining trees are infected. Whitebark pine produces pine nuts, which are a favorite food for red squirrels and Clark's nutcracker. Grizzly bears and black bears often eat pine nuts stored by squirrels. Efforts to control blister rust between 1930 and 1970 were unsuccessful, and the damage to whitebark pines continues, harming species that depend on them.
Most plant and animal species that were known historically are still present, except for bison and woodland caribou. This allows scientists to study an intact ecosystem. Two threatened mammal species, the grizzly bear and lynx, live in the park. Although their numbers are similar to historical levels, they are listed as threatened because they are rare or absent in most other parts of the U.S. outside Alaska. On average, one or two bear attacks on humans happen each year. Since 1971, there have been 11 bear-related deaths and 20 non-fatal injuries since 2001. The exact number of grizzly bears and lynx in the park is unknown, but the first scientific survey of lynx in the park was completed in 2021. Data from this study will help researchers estimate lynx populations in specific areas. Reports from agencies like the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks show that the grizzly bear population in and around Glacier Park has grown to about 1,051 as of 2021, more than three times the 300 estimated in 1975. Scientists use various methods to better understand the populations of grizzly bears and black bears. Another study found that wolverines, a rare mammal in the lower 48 states, also live in the park. When the park was established, only three or four wolf packs remained. Early rangers used guns, traps, and poison to eliminate wolves from the park by 1936. Wolves returned naturally in the 1980s. Sixty-two mammal species have been documented, including badgers, river otters, porcupines, minks, martens, fishers, two types of marmots, six types of bats, and other small mammals. Other mammals, such as mountain goats (the park’s official symbol), bighorn sheep, moose, elk, mule deer, skunks, white-tailed deer, bobcats, coyotes, and cougars, are either common or plentiful.
Over 260 bird species have been recorded in the park. Birds of prey, such as bald eagles, golden eagles, peregrine falcons, ospreys, and hawks, live in the park year-round. Harlequin ducks are colorful waterfowl found in lakes and streams. Great blue herons, tundra swans, Canada geese, and American wigeons are also common waterfowl. Great horned owls, Clark's nutcrackers, Steller's jays, pileated woodpeckers, and cedar waxwings live in dense forests along mountainsides. In higher areas, ptarmigans, timberline sparrows, and rosy finches are often seen. Clark's nutcrackers are less common now because of the decline in whitebark pine trees.
Because of the cold climate, cold-blooded reptiles are rare. Only two species of garter snakes and the western painted turtle are known to live in the park. Six species of amphibians are documented, though they are found in large numbers. After a forest fire in 2001, some park roads were closed temporarily to allow thousands of western toads to move to other areas.
Twenty-three fish species live in park waters. Native fish, such as westslope cutthroat trout, northern pike, mountain whitefish, kokanee salmon, and Arctic grayling, are found in lakes and streams. The threatened bull trout must be returned to the water if accidentally caught. The introduction of non-native fish, like lake trout, has harmed native species, especially the bull trout and westslope cutthroat trout.
For many years, forest fires were seen as a danger to protected areas. After the 1960s, scientists learned that fires are a natural part of the ecosystem. Old policies that stopped fires led to the buildup of dead plants and trees, which would normally be removed by fires. Many plants and animals depend on wildfires to add nutrients to the soil and create space for grasses and small plants to grow. Glacier National Park has a fire management plan that suppresses human-caused fires. Natural fires are monitored, and suppression depends on the fire’s size and
Recreation
Glacier National Park is far from major cities. The nearest airport is in Kalispell, Montana, located southwest of the park. Amtrak's Empire Builder train stops at East Glacier seasonally and at West Glacier and Essex year-round. A group of restored 1930s White Motor Company buses, known as Red Jammers, provide tours on all the main roads in the park. The drivers of these buses are called "Jammers" because of a past issue with the vehicles' gears. The tour buses were rebuilt in 2001 by Ford Motor Company. Their original bodies were removed and placed on modern Ford E-Series van chassis. The buses were also changed to use propane fuel to reduce their environmental impact. Later, hybrid engines were added. As of 2017, 33 of the original 35 buses remain in use.
Historic wooden tour boats, some from the 1920s, operate on larger lakes in the park. Many of these boats have been used seasonally at Glacier National Park since 1927 and can carry up to 80 passengers. Three of these older boats were added to the National Register of Historic Places in January 2018.
Hiking is a popular activity in the park. More than half of the park’s visitors take hikes on its nearly 700 miles (1,127 kilometers) of trails. The Continental Divide National Scenic Trail runs through most of the park from north to south, covering about 110 miles (177 kilometers). Alternative routes are available at lower elevations if high passes are blocked by snow. The Pacific Northwest National Scenic Trail crosses the park from east to west, covering 52 miles (84 kilometers).
Many day hikes are available in the park. Backcountry camping is allowed at campsites along trails, but a permit is required and can be obtained from certain visitor centers or arranged in advance. Much of the park’s backcountry is usually not accessible to hikers until early June due to snow and avalanche risks. At higher elevations, trails may remain snow-covered until July. Campgrounds with vehicle access are located throughout the park, mostly near larger lakes. The campgrounds at St. Mary and Apgar are open year-round, but facilities like restrooms and running water are not available during the off-season. Most campgrounds with vehicle access are open from mid-June to mid-September. Guide and shuttle services are also available.
The park is a popular destination for mountain climbing, with many routes that gain elevation quickly. The sedimentary rocks in the mountains break easily. The Glacier Mountaineering Society supports climbing in the park and keeps records of its peaks.
The park is also a popular spot for kayaking and fly fishing. No permit is needed to fish in park waters. However, if threatened bull trout are caught, they must be released immediately back into the water. Other fishing limits are more flexible.
Winter activities in the park are limited. Snowmobiling is not allowed anywhere in the park. Cross-country skiing is permitted in lower-altitude valleys, as long as it is away from avalanche zones.