Great Smoky Mountains National Park is a national park in the southeastern United States, located in parts of North Carolina and Tennessee. The park spans the ridgeline of the Great Smoky Mountains, which are part of the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Appalachian temperate rainforest, a section of the larger Appalachian Mountain range. The park includes some of the tallest mountains in eastern North America, such as Kuwohi, Mount Guyot, and Mount Le Conte. The border between North Carolina and Tennessee runs northeast to southwest through the middle of the park. The Appalachian Trail passes through the center of the park on its path from Georgia to Maine. In 2024, the park welcomed over 12 million visitors, making it the most visited national park in the United States.
The park covers 522,419 acres (816.28 square miles; 211,415.47 hectares; 2,114.15 square kilometers), making it one of the largest protected areas in the eastern United States. The main entrances to the park are along U.S. Highway 441 (Newfound Gap Road) in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, and Cherokee, North Carolina, as well as in Townsend, Tennessee. The park is known worldwide for its mountains, waterfalls, biodiversity, and forests. It also protects many historical buildings that were part of communities settled by early European-American settlers.
The park was created by the United States Congress in 1934 and officially opened by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940. It was the first national park where federal funds helped pay for land and other costs; earlier parks were funded only by state or private money. The park was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 and an International Biosphere Reserve in 1988.
The park is a major part of a large tourism industry in Sevier County, Tennessee, which is near the park. Popular attractions include Dollywood, the second-most visited tourist spot in Tennessee; Ober Gatlinburg; and Ripley's Aquarium of the Smokies. Tourism in the park adds about $2.5 billion each year to the local economy.
Geography
The Great Smoky Mountains National Park covers 522,419 acres (about 816 square miles, 211,415 hectares, and 2,114 square kilometers). The park is about equally divided between Tennessee and North Carolina. It is located in parts of Blount, Sevier, and Cocke Counties in Tennessee, and Swain and Haywood Counties in North Carolina. The park borders an Indian reservation to the south, home to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, a group officially recognized by the government. This group is descended from a small group of Cherokee who avoided being forced to move to present-day Oklahoma. The town of Gatlinburg is directly north of the park. Other nearby towns include Townsend in Tennessee and Bryson City, Fontana Dam, and Maggie Valley in North Carolina. The Cherokee National Forest borders the park to the east and west in Tennessee, and the Nantahala National Forest borders much of the park in North Carolina.
The Great Smoky Mountains National Park protects most of the Great Smoky Mountains, a smaller mountain range within the Blue Ridge Mountains, which is part of the Appalachian Mountains. This range runs roughly east to west, between the Bald Mountains to the east, the Plott Balsams to the south, and the Unicoi Mountains to the west. The park also protects a small part of foothills, which separate the range from the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians to the north. From west to east, the range gradually widens, with most of the highest mountains in the eastern half. Elevations in the park range from about 875 feet (267 meters) to 6,643 feet (2,025 meters) at the top of Kuwohi.
Kuwohi is the highest mountain in Tennessee and the third-highest mountain east of the Mississippi River. The park contains 16 of the "Southern Sixers," mountains in Tennessee and North Carolina that reach elevations higher than 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). The second-highest mountain in the park is Mount Guyot, at 6,621 feet (2,018 meters). Mount Le Conte, at 6,593 feet (2,010 meters), rises 5,301 feet (1,616 meters) from its base to its summit, making it the tallest mountain in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains.
Between the mountains are deep valleys, some called coves. The largest and most noticeable is Cades Cove, a wide, flat area between the main range and some foothills. Other major valleys include The Sugarlands, Greenbrier, Ocanaluftee, Cataloochee, Elkmont, Tremont, and Deep Creek. These valleys are among the easiest places to visit in the park and are often used as reference points for other areas.
Kuwohi is the highest mountain in the national park at 6,643 feet (2,025 meters). Mount Le Conte has the highest relief east of the Rocky Mountains, rising 5,301 feet (1,616 meters) from its base. Near Gatlinburg, Tennessee, the mountain is the tallest in eastern North America when measured from base to summit. The Sugarlands are one of several prominent valleys within the range. A view of the mountains from Newfound Gap is a notable sight.
The Great Smoky Mountains National Park is located entirely within the Tennessee Valley, the area drained by the Tennessee River. It contains about 2,900 miles (4,700 kilometers) of streams. The Little Tennessee River runs along the southwestern border of the park, which is blocked by Chilhowee Dam, Calderwood Dam, Cheoah Dam, and Fontana Dam. The Pigeon River flows through a deep gorge near the eastern boundary of the park, separating the range from the Bald Mountains to the east. The Plott Balsams border the range to the south. Smaller rivers that begin in the park include the three prongs of the Little Pigeon River, the Oconaluftee River, and the Little River. Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby, and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg. More than 100 waterfalls are in the park. The tallest is Ramsey Cascades, located at the base of Mount Guyot. This waterfall drops 100 feet (30 meters) over rocks into a small pool below. Rainbow Falls is the tallest single-drop waterfall, plunging 80 feet (24 meters) along LeConte Creek. Other popular waterfalls include Grotto Falls, Laurel Falls, Abrams Falls, Mingo Falls, Mouse Creek Falls, and Hen Wallow Falls.
The park service maintains four historic districts and one archaeological district within the park, as well as nine individual listings on the National Register of Historic Places. Notable structures not listed include the Mountain Farm Museum buildings at Oconaluftee and buildings in the Cataloochee area. The Mingus Mill (in Oconaluftee) and Smoky Mountain Hiking Club cabin in Greenbrier have been deemed eligible for listing.
- Cades Cove Historic District
- Elkmont Historic District
- Oconaluftee Archaeological District
- Noah Ogle Place
- Roaring Fork Historic District
- Alex Cole Cabin
- Kuwohi Observation Tower
- Hall Cabin (in Hazel Creek area)
- John Messer Barn
- John Ownby Cabin
- Oconaluftee Baptist Church (also called Smokemont Baptist Church)
- Tyson McCarter Place
- Mayna Treanor Avent Studio
- Little Greenbrier School
- Walker Sisters Place
Geology
The Great Smoky Mountains National Park has many rocks that are part of the Ocoee Supergroup, which are late Precambrian in age. These rocks include sandstones, phyllites, schists, and slates that have changed over time. Earlier Precambrian rocks are the oldest in the park and are found in places like the Raven Fork valley and the upper Tuckasegee River near Cherokee and Bryson City. These rocks are mostly made of gneiss, granite, and schist. Cambrian sedimentary rocks are found in the foothills to the northwest and in limestone coves. A popular area in the mountains is Cades Cove, where older sandstone rocks surround the valley floor made of younger limestone rocks.
The oldest rocks in the Smokies are Precambrian gneiss and schists, which formed over a billion years ago from layers of marine sediments and igneous rock. In the late Precambrian, the ocean expanded, and the Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from eroded landmasses depositing onto the continental shelf. During the Paleozoic era, the ocean left behind thick layers of marine sediments that became sedimentary rock. In the Ordovician period, the collision of the North American and African tectonic plates caused the Appalachian Mountains to rise. During the Mesozoic era, erosion removed softer sedimentary rocks, exposing the older Ocoee Supergroup rocks again.
About 20,000 years ago, glaciers from the subarctic moved south across North America, though they never reached the Smokies. This movement caused colder temperatures and more rain in the region. Trees could not grow at high elevations, so tundra plants took their place. Spruce-fir forests grew in valleys and slopes below about 4,950 feet (1,510 meters). Freezing and thawing cycles during this time created large blockfields, which are found at the bases of mountain slopes.
Environment
Great Smoky Mountains National Park has two climate types according to the Köppen climate classification system: humid subtropical (Cfa) and temperate oceanic (Cfb). The plant hardiness zone at Kuwohi Visitor Center is 5b, with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of −14.3 °F (−25.7 °C). Traveling up the mountains is similar to moving from Tennessee to Canada in terms of temperature changes.
The humid, subtropical air over the Smoky Mountains, combined with air rising over the mountains (orographic lift), causes high levels of precipitation. Annual rainfall ranges from 50–80 inches (1,300–2,000 mm), with heavy winter snowfall in higher areas. Flash flooding often happens after heavy rain.
The average temperature difference between high elevations, such as Newfound Gap at 5,048 feet (1,539 meters) above sea level, and lower valleys at about 1,600 feet (488 meters), is 10–13 °F (5.6–7.2 °C) for high temperatures and 3–6 °F (1.7–3.3 °C) for low temperatures. The temperature change for highs is similar to the moist adiabatic lapse rate, which is a decrease of 3.3 °F (1.8 °C) for every 1,000 feet (300 meters) of elevation. The smaller temperature change for lows is due to frequent temperature inversions that occur in the morning, especially in autumn.
Strong winds of 80–100 mph (130–160 km/h) or higher happen several times each year around the Smoky Mountains, mainly during the cool season from October to April. These winds are caused by a phenomenon called mountain waves. Mountain waves are strongest near the foothills and can cause widespread damage, such as fallen trees and roof damage, especially near Cades Cove and Cove Mountain. Strong winds from mountain waves contributed to the 2016 Gatlinburg fire during the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires. Damaging winds can also occur from thunderstorms, with tornadoes and large thunderstorm systems (mesoscale convective systems) occasionally affecting the area.
Air pollution affects the park due to nearby development. A 2004 report by the National Parks Conservation Association identified Great Smoky Mountains National Park as the most polluted national park. Between 1999 and 2003, the park recorded about 150 days of unhealthy air quality per year. In 2013, Colorado State University reported significant improvements in air quality from 1990 to 2010 after the U.S. Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Acid Rain Program were implemented. Visibility on the park’s haziest days improved from an average of 9 miles in 1998 to 40 miles in 2018. A 2023 report by the North Carolina Division of Air Quality showed major reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and fine particulate matter.
Biology and ecology
The Great Smoky Mountains National Park is the most biologically diverse national park in the United States. About 19,000 species of living things are known to live in the park. Scientists think there might be as many as 80,000 to 100,000 more species living there. The land now protected by the park became a safe place for plants and animals that were forced to move during the Last Glacial Period. The high number of living things is also helped by the rainy and mild climate. No other place of similar size in a temperate climate is known to have as many different species as the park.
Forests cover about 95 percent of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The forests in the lower areas are mostly made up of trees that lose their leaves in the winter. At higher places, these trees are replaced by coniferous trees, like the Fraser fir. About 20 to 25 percent of the forests in the park are old-growth forests, meaning many trees are very old and grew before Europeans settled the area. This is one of the largest areas of old-growth, deciduous, temperate forest in North America. Most of the forest is a mature second-growth hardwood forest. The different heights, the lots of rain, and the presence of old-growth forests help the park have a wide variety of living things. The park is home to over 1,500 kinds of flowering plants, more than any other national park in North America. These include 35 types of orchids, 27 kinds of violets, and 58 types of plants in the lily family. The park has 101 kinds of native trees and 114 kinds of native shrubs. It also has over 490 kinds of non-vascular plants. More than 4,000 kinds of non-flowering plants, 2,700 kinds of fungi, 952 kinds of algae, and 563 kinds of lichen are found in the park. Plants and animals that are common in the Northeast of the United States find suitable homes in the park’s higher areas, while plants and animals from the South live in the warmer lower areas.
The forests of the Smokies are usually divided into three areas: cove hardwood forests in the valleys, coves, and lower mountain slopes; northern hardwood forests on the higher mountain slopes; and spruce-fir or boreal forests at the very highest elevations. Appalachian balds—areas where trees are missing or very few—are found in the mid-to-upper elevations of the range. Balds include grassy balds and heath balds. Heath balds are mostly covered in shrubs from the heath family, like rhododendron and mountain laurel. These are mostly found in the northeastern part of the park on narrow ridges between 3,600 and 5,200 feet (1,100 to 1,600 meters). Grass balds are mountain meadows covered mostly in grasses and sedges. These are usually found on rounded mountain tops or slopes in the southwestern part of the park between 4,500 and 5,700 feet (1,400 to 1,700 meters). Mixed oak-pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on the south-facing side of the range in North Carolina.
Cove hardwood forests, which are native to southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America. The cove hardwood forests in the Smokies are mostly second-growth, although about 72,000 acres (290 square kilometers) are still old-growth. These forests are found in valleys between mountain ridges at elevations below 4,500 feet (1,400 meters) in deep, moist soil. The Albright Grove along the Maddron Bald Trail (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an old-growth forest that is easily accessible and has some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range.
Over 130 kinds of trees are found in the cove hardwood forests of the Smokies. The most common trees include yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), basswood (Tilia americana), yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera, also called "tulip poplar"), silverbells (Halesia carolina), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), cucumber magnolia (Magnolia acuminata), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). The American chestnut (Castanea dentata), which was once very popular among people living in the area before the park was created, was killed by the Chestnut blight in the early-to-mid 20th century.
The understories of the cove hardwood forests have many kinds of shrubs and vines. Common plants in the Smokies include Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense), mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), and smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens).
The average temperatures in the higher elevations
Attractions and activities
The Great Smoky Mountains National Park is a popular place for visitors in the region. It has been the most visited national park for many years, with over 14.1 million people visiting for recreation in 2021.
The park has three main entrances in Gatlinburg, Cherokee, and Townsend. U.S. Route 441 (Newfound Gap Road) is the main road through the park, connecting Cherokee and Gatlinburg. The Gatlinburg entrance is the busiest and is the southern end of the Great Smoky Mountains Parkway, a highway that links the park to Pigeon Forge, Sevierville, and Interstate 40 to the north.
There are 850 miles (1,370 km) of trails and unpaved roads in the park for hiking.
A total of 71.6 miles (115.2 km) of the Appalachian Trail (AT) are located within the park. The AT enters the park near Fontana Dam and climbs to Brier Lick Knob at the Tennessee-North Carolina state line. The trail follows the mountain ridges and state line for most of its length in the park, rarely dropping below 5,000 feet (1,500 m). Kuwohi is the highest point on the trail. Other notable peaks include Thunderhead Mountain, Silers Bald, Mount Collins, Newfound Gap, Mount Kephart, Charlies Bunion, Mount Sequoyah, Mount Chapman, Mount Guyot, Old Black, and Mount Cammerer. Twelve trail shelters are located along the AT in the park, used mainly for long backpacking trips.
Mount Le Conte is one of the most visited places in the park, with five trails leading to its summit. The most popular is the Alum Cave Trail, which offers scenic views and natural features like Alum Cave Bluffs and Arch Rock. The Bullhead and Rainbow Falls trails each climb about 4,000 feet (1,200 m), making them two of the trails with the largest elevation gain east of the Mississippi River. Hikers can stay overnight at LeConte Lodge near the summit, which has cabins and rooms available except in winter. Accessible only by trail, it is the only private lodging inside the park and the highest inn in the eastern United States. The Mt. LeConte Shelter is located on The Boulevard Trail and can hold 12 people per night. It is the only backcountry site in the park where campfires are permanently banned.
Cades Cove is the most visited destination in the park. It is a cleared valley with dramatic mountain views and many preserved historic buildings, including log cabins, barns, and churches. An 11-mile (18 km) one-way loop road surrounds Cades Cove, allowing visitors to explore by car or bicycle and learn about life in southern Appalachia. Other historical areas in the park include Roaring Fork, Cataloochee, Elkmont, and the Mountain Farm Museum and Mingus Mill in Oconaluftee.
U.S. Route 441 (Newfound Gap Road) provides access to many trailheads and overlooks, including Newfound Gap. At 5,048 feet (1,539 m), it is the lowest gap in the mountain range and is located near the center of the park on the Tennessee-North Carolina state line, halfway between Gatlinburg and Cherokee. In 1940, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt dedicated the park from the Rockefeller Memorial. On clear days, Newfound Gap offers some of the most scenic views in the park. A 45-foot (14 m) observation tower on Kuwohi provides a 360-degree view of the surrounding mountains. Visibility can range up to 100 miles (160 km) on clear days but is often limited to 20 miles (32 km) due to air pollution.
Other scenic drives and overlooks in the park include Lakeview Drive, which runs along Fontana Lake but was never completed. It has two segments accessible from Fontana Dam or Bryson City and includes an unused tunnel and trails for hiking and horseback riding. The Foothills Parkway, also never completed, has two separate segments near the park’s northwest and northeast areas. It offers views of the mountains and the Tennessee Valley. The southern end of the Blue Ridge Parkway is located near Cherokee. The Gatlinburg Bypass provides scenic mountain views around Gatlinburg.
Fishing, especially fly fishing, is the most popular activity in the park. The park’s waters are known for healthy trout populations, including native brook trout and introduced brown and rainbow trout. There are strict rules about how fishing is done. Horseback riding, bicycling (rentals are available in Cades Cove), and water tubing are also common activities. Many roads in the park are popular with drivers and car enthusiasts. A section of U.S. Route 129 near the park’s western edge is called the "Tail of the Dragon" because of its winding road and is popular with motorcyclists and sports car drivers.
Designated backcountry campsites are found throughout the park. A permit, available at ranger stations or the park website, is required for all backcountry camping. Reservations are also needed for shelters and campsites. Shelters allow stays of up to one night, while campsites allow up to three nights.
From late May to early June, the Elkmont area hosts the peak display of synchronous fireflies (Photinus carolinus), one of at least 19 firefly species in the park. These fireflies are unique because their flashing patterns are synchronized.
History
Native Americans likely hunted in the Great Smoky Mountains for about 14,000 years. Many items from the Archaic period (around 8000 to 1000 B.C.) have been found in the national park, such as arrow tips discovered along paths where animals moved. During the Woodland period (around 1000 B.C. to 1000 A.D.), the park had sites with 2,000-year-old pottery and signs of early farming.
As agriculture became more important during the Mississippian period (around 900 to 1600 A.D.), Native Americans moved from the Smokies’ forests to fertile river valleys. In the 1960s, large Mississippian villages were found at Citico and Toqua near the Little Tennessee River. Fortified villages and mounds were also discovered at McMahan Indian Mounds in Sevierville and Townsend.
Most of these villages were part of a small chiefdom centered on a village called Chiaha, which was on an island now under Douglas Lake. In 1540 and 1567, European explorers passed through the French Broad River valley near Chiaha. The Pardo expedition used a trail across Chilhowee Mountain to reach Mississippian villages at Chilhowee and Citico.
In the late 1600s, the Cherokee began moving into eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina, possibly to avoid European settlers and diseases. By the time Europeans arrived, the Cherokee controlled much of the region, and the Smokies were at the center of their territory. The Cherokee called the range “Shaconage,” meaning “place of blue smoke.” Cherokee legends include a magical lake called Atagahi and a Shawnee medicine man named Aganunitsi who searched for the Uktena. The Cherokee named Gregory Bald “Tsitsuyi ᏥᏧᏱ,” or “rabbit place,” and believed the mountain was the home of the Great Rabbit. Other names included “Duniskwalgunyi ᏚᏂᏍᏆᎫᏂ” for Chimney Tops and “Kuwohi ᎫᏩᎯ” for the Oconaluftee River.
Most Cherokee settlements were in river valleys near the Smokies, which formed a natural barrier between Overhill villages in Tennessee and Cherokee Middle towns in North Carolina. The Overhill town of Chilhowee was at the meeting point of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee River. The Overhill town of Tallassee was near modern Calderwood. Other Overhill villages, like Chota and Tanasi, lined the Little Tennessee River. The Cherokee Middle towns included Kittowa, believed to be the oldest Cherokee village, along the Tuckasegee River. The village of Oconaluftee, near the modern Oconaluftee Visitor Center, was the only known permanent Cherokee village inside the national park. Other settlements were in Cades Cove and Hazel Creek.
European settlers arrived in Western North Carolina and East Tennessee in the mid-1700s. After the French and Indian War, conflicts arose when the Cherokee, who still owned much of the land, sided with the British during the American Revolution. American forces burned several Cherokee villages, and by 1805, the Cherokee gave up control of the Smokies to the U.S. government. Most Cherokee were forced west on the Trail of Tears in 1838, but some, like those led by William Holland Thomas, stayed in the area and now form the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.
In the 1780s, forts like Whitson’s Fort and Wear’s Fort were built near the Smokies. Permanent settlers arrived in the 1790s, including John Mingus and Ralph Hughes on the Oconaluftee River. The Whaley brothers settled in Greenbrier in 1801, and William Ogle built homes in White Oak Flats. His wife, Martha Jane Huskey, later returned with her family to settle in what became Gatlinburg. Families in Cades Cove were often from land speculator William “Fighting Billy” Tipton. The first settlers in Cades Cove, John and Lucretia Oliver, arrived in 1818. By the 1820s, more families moved there, and a church was built in 1827. Some settlers, like Moses and Patience Proctor, moved to Hazel Creek in 1836. The Caldwell family was the first to settle in Cataloochee in 1834.
In the early 1800s, the economy of the Smokies relied on farming. Farms had about 50 acres, with some land for crops and some for trees. Early homes were small log cabins, later replaced by larger log houses and frame houses. Farms often had barns, springhouses, smokehouses, chicken coops, and corn cribs. Some farmers ran gristmills, stores, and sorghum presses. Religion was important, and communities centered on churches. Protestant groups like Baptists and Methodists were common. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, leading to the Trail of Tears. Some Cherokees, like Tsali, stayed in the Smokies, and a group on the Oconaluftee River kept land.